Saturday, December 10, 2016

PRN Mixing Radar tracks diode tagged bees

Animal migration tracking: how did we get to bee backpacks? | Alphr
Bee Searching Radar With High Transmit–Receive Isolation Using Pulse Pseudorandom Code - IEEE Xplore Document
M. L. Hsu et al., "Bee Searching Radar With High Transmit–Receive Isolation Using Pulse Pseudorandom Code," in IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 4324-4335, Dec. 2016.
doi: 10.1109/TMTT.2016.2613531Abstract:
This paper presents an innovative radar architecture to improve the isolation of the harmonic radar between the transmitter and the receiver. The proposed radar transmits two closely located frequencies to the transponder, and the transponder transmits a response signal at a mixed frequency. Because the frequency of the response signal is different from those of the clutter and leakage signals, the isolation is significantly improved. For a traditional harmonic radar, the leakage signals should be suppressed to a sensitivity lower than −106 dBm to avoid interference. The proposed radar requires only attenuation of  leakage signals to a level lower than −8 dBm to avoid low-noise amplifier saturation. Harmonic radar transponders are compatible with the proposed radar system without additional design. This paper also proposes a new method for maintaining the correlation of transmitter and receiver phase noise. Field test results demonstrate that leakage signal interference in the proposed radar is far lower than that in the harmonic radar. The significant improvement in isolation reveals the advantages of applying the frequency mixing concept in the proposed radar.
keywords: {Harmonic analysis; Radar; Receivers; Sensitivity; Transceivers; Transmitters; Transponders; Clutter; harmonic radar; leakage signal; phase noise; pseudorandom (PRN) code; transmitter to receiver isolation},
URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=7592458&isnumber=7777000
VII. CONCLUSION
A new technique called mixing radar is proposed to improve the isolation and succeed the PRN code positioning technique. The mixing radar transmits two close fundamental frequencies to a transponder and receives the mixed frequency to distinguish the surrounding clutter and the leakage signals from the transmitter. The transponder used in the harmonic radar is compatible with the mixing radar system without additional design. To keep the transmitter and the receiver correlated, a
new LO architecture was proposed and verified. The performance of the harmonic radar and mixing radar was compared in a field test. Both radar systems could accurately measure the distances of multiple transponders; however, the leakage signal interference in the mixing radar was far lower than that in the harmonic radar. Therefore, the proposed mixing radar was confirmed to significantly improve the isolation between the transmitter and the receiver and retain the advantage of the PRN code positioning technique.

Related/Background:

  1. V. Melnikov, M. Leskinen and J. Koistinen, "Doppler Velocities at Orthogonal Polarizations in Radar Echoes From Insects and Birds," in IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 592-596, March 2014.
    doi: 10.1109/LGRS.2013.2272011
    Abstract: The differential Doppler velocities (DDVs) measured with weather radar at horizontal and vertical polarizations in echoes from insects and birds are considered. In weather echoes, DDV is usually less than 0.5 ms- 1, whereas in echoes from flying birds and insects, it can reach 5-7 ms- 1. Such large difference can be used as an additional parameter in distinguishing between weather and nonmeteorological echoes. It is shown that large values of DDV pertain to multipeaked Doppler spectra with different spectral differential reflectivity values in the peaks.
    keywords: {Doppler radar;meteorological radar;radar polarimetry;Doppler spectra;Doppler velocitiy;differential Doppler velocities;flying birds;nonmeteorological echo;orthogonal polarizations;radar echoes;spectral differential reflectivity;weather echoes;weather radar;Birds;Doppler effect;Doppler radar;Insects;Meteorology;Radar polarimetry;Differential Doppler velocity (DDV);radar echo from birds and insects;radar polarimetry},
    URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6567947&isnumber=6675037
  2. V. A. Drake, "Signal processing for ZLC-configuration insect-monitoring radars: Yields and sample biases," 2013 International Conference on Radar, Adelaide, SA, 2013, pp. 298-303.
    1. doi: 10.1109/RADAR.2013.6652002
    2. Abstract: A radar design that has proved effective for monitoring insect migratory flights employs a vertical beam in which rotating linear polarization is combined with a very narrow-angle conical scan - the “ZLC configuration”. The rather complicated echo-intensity time series produced when an individual insect traverses the radar's beam contains information about the insect's size, shape, orientation, and trajectory. However, retrieval of the various parameters is not always successful and some types of targets and target traverses are more vulnerable to processing failure than others. Variations in the ability of a profiling radar to detect targets of different sizes and at different heights are understood and can be corrected for if the target sizes and speeds are known (as is the case with a fully analyzed ZLC echo), but differences in processing success rates represent an additional source of bias. This preliminary study identifies height, the peak signal intensity, and target numbers as factors affecting processing yield, and presents some examples to illustrate how they act. These three quantities are available for all detected targets, as is required for use in any scheme for taking account of processing losses when generating profiles of target density (and other measures of insect activity of value to entomologists).
    3. keywords: {radar cross-sections;radar detection;radar signal processing;time series;zoology;ZLC configuration;ZLC echo;ZLC-configuration insect-monitoring radars;echo-intensity time series;entomologists;insect migratory flight monitoring;narrow-angle conical scan;peak signal intensity;profiling radar;radar beam;radar design;rotating linear polarization;signal processing;target density;target detection;vertical beam;Insects;Monitoring;Noise;Radar cross-sections;Receivers;Time series analysis;bias;density profile;insect;processing yield;radar},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6652002&isnumber=6651936
  3. N. Tahir and G. Brooker, "The investigation of millimetre wave optical harmonic transponders and radar for monitoring small insects," 2013 IEEE Topical Conference on Wireless Sensors and Sensor Networks (WiSNet), Austin, TX, 2013, pp. 22-24.
    1. doi: 10.1109/WiSNet.2013.6488621
    2. Abstract: The paper investigates the use of millimetre wave optical harmonic transponders for tracking small insects. Their small dimensions (5.15mm × 2.91mm), low profile, and low weight (~10mg) make them suitable for monitoring small insects. It provides 5dB and 3dB improvement in conversion gain under no illumination when illuminated by red laser without and with 0.9OD neutral density filter respectively. Its associated low power harmonic radar can be portable due to the small size of the millimetre wave components. So far, the prototype radar operating in CW mode has detected optical transponders up to a range of 1m. The detection range, and range resolution can be improved by increasing the radar antenna gains and improving the receiver noise floor by introducing a frequency modulation technique and reducing the receiver bandwidth.
    3. keywords: {CW radar;FM radar;low-power electronics;microstrip antennas;microwave photonics;millimetre wave antennas;millimetre wave radar;monitoring;optical harmonic generation;radar antennas;radar detection;radar receivers;radar resolution;radar tracking;radiofrequency identification;transponders;CW mode operation;conversion gain improvement;detection range improvement;frequency modulation technique;low power harmonic radar;millimetre wave optical harmonic transponders;millimetre wave radar;neutral density filter;radar antenna gain;radiofrequency identification;range resolution improvement;receiver bandwidth reduction;receiver noise floor improvement;red laser;small insects monitoring;small insects tracking;Harmonic analysis;Laser radar;Optical filters;Power harmonic filters;Radar antennas;Transponders;Microstrip antennas;Radiofrequency identification;millimetre wave radar;transponder},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6488621&isnumber=6488600
  4. J. R. Riley, "Angular and temporal variations in the radar cross-sections of insects," in Electrical Engineers, Proceedings of the Institution of, vol. 120, no. 10, pp. 1229-1232, October 1973.
    1. doi: 10.1049/piee.1973.0251
    2. Abstract:
    3. keywords: {radar applications;radar cross-sections;zoology;angular variations;insects;measurements;radar cross sections;temporal variations},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5251797&isnumber=5250929
  5. D. Psychoudakis, W. Moulder, C. C. Chen, H. Zhu and J. L. Volakis, "A Portable Low-Power Harmonic Radar System and Conformal Tag for Insect Tracking," in IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, vol. 7, no. , pp. 444-447, 2008.
    1. doi: 10.1109/LAWP.2008.2004512
    2. Abstract: Harmonic radar systems provide an effective modality for tracking insect behavior. This letter presents a harmonic radar system proposed to track the migration of the Emerald Ash Borer (EAB). The system offers a unique combination of portability, low power and small tag design. It is comprised of a compact radar unit and a passive RF tag for mounting on the insect. The radar unit transmits a 5.96 GHz signal and detects at the 11.812 GHz band. A prototype of the radar unit was built and tested, and a new small tag was designed for the application. The new tag offers improved harmonic conversion efficiency and much smaller size as compared to previous harmonic radar systems for tracking insects. Unlike RFID detectors whose sensitivity allows detection up to a few meters, the developed radar can detect a tagged insect up to 58 m (190 ft).
    3. keywords: {biological techniques;low-power electronics;radar detection;radar tracking;conformal tag;emerald ash borer;frequency 11.8 GHz to 12.0 GHz;frequency 5.9 GHz to 6.0 GHz;harmonic radar systems;insect behavior tracking;insect tracking;portable low-power harmonic radar system;Harmonic radar;insect tracking;radar;radio frequency identification (RFID)},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4601472&isnumber=4446029
  6. S. E. Hobbs and A. C. Aldhous, "Insect ventral radar cross-section polarisation dependence measurements for radar entomology," in IEE Proceedings - Radar, Sonar and Navigation, vol. 153, no. 6, pp. 502-508, December 2006.
    1. doi: 10.1049/ip-rsn:20060019
    2. Abstract: Radar entomology has developed such that routine long-term monitoring of insect flight through the atmospheric boundary layer is now practical. Typical entomological radars use X-band (9.4 GHz) marine transceivers with a vertical pencil beam and rotate the plane of polarisation about the beam axis. Ideally, insect species and other parameters (mass etc.) should be estimated from the measured radar cross-section variation with polarisation angle. For this, a library of known insect cross-section polarisation signatures is required. Two models are currently used to parameterise the polarisation signature: the harmonic model and a model using the scattering matrix for symmetric targets (SM3). Data from the literature and a doctoral research project are presented and analysed to obtain parameters for both the harmonic and SM3 models. Knowledge of the measurement errors allows SM3 parameter uncertainties to be quantified in most cases using a maximum likelihood approach. Results for 68 insects representing 24 species are presented. These include several economically significant species (e.g. bees and locusts), with individual insect masses ranging from 9 mg to 3 g
    3. keywords: {S-matrix theory;electromagnetic wave polarisation;harmonic analysis;marine radar;maximum likelihood estimation;measurement errors;radar cross-sections;radar polarimetry;remote sensing by radar;SMS model;X-band marine transceiver;atmospheric boundary layer;harmonic model;insect ventral radar cross-section;maximum likelihood approach;measurement error;polarisation dependence measurement;polarisation signature;radar entomology;scattering matrix;symmetric target;vertical pencil beam},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4027866&isnumber=4027860
  7. C. R. Vaughn, "Birds and insects as radar targets: A review," in Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 73, no. 2, pp. 205-227, Feb. 1985.
    1. doi: 10.1109/PROC.1985.13134
    2. Abstract: A review of radar cross-section measurements of birds and insects is presented. A brief discussion of some possible theoretical models is also given and comparisons made with the measurements. The comparisons suggest that most targets are, at present, better modeled by a prolate spheroid having a length-to-width ratio between 3 and 10 than by the often used equivalent weight water sphere. In addition, many targets observed with linear horizontal polarization have maximum cross sections much better estimated by a resonant half-wave dipole than by a water sphere. Also considered are birds and insects in the aggregate as a local radar "clutter" source. Order-of-magnitude estimates are given for many reasonable target number densities. These estimates are then used to predict X-band volume reflectivities. Other topics that are of interest to the radar engineer are discussed, including the doppler bandwidth due to the internal motions of a single bird, the radar cross-section probability densities of single birds and insects, the variability of the functional form of the probability density functions, and the Fourier spectra of single birds and insects.
    3. keywords: {Aggregates;Bandwidth;Birds;Clutter;Doppler radar;Insects;Polarization;Radar cross section;Reflectivity;Resonance},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1457402&isnumber=31346
  8. J. R. Riley, "Radar cross section of insects," in Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 73, no. 2, pp. 228-232, Feb. 1985.
    1. doi: 10.1109/PROC.1985.13135
    2. Abstract: X-band measurements of radar cross section as a function of the angle between insect body axis and the plane of polarization are presented. A finding of particular interest is that in larger insects, maximum cross section occurs when the E-vector is perpendicular to the body axis. A new range of measurements on small insects (aphids and planthoppers) is also described, and a comprehensive summary of insect cross-section data at X-band is given.
    3. keywords: {Apertures;Calibration;Insects;Polarization;Radar cross section;Radar measurements;Rotation measurement;Shape measurement;Time measurement;Transmission line measurements},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1457403&isnumber=31346
  9. J. H. Richter and D. R. Jensen, "Radar cross-section measurements of insects," in Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 143-144, Jan. 1973.
    1. doi: 10.1109/PROC.1973.8997
    2. Abstract: A simple method to measure backscatter cross sections of live insects at 10-cm wavelength using an ultra-high resolution scanning FM-CW tropospheric radar sounder is described. The technique involves suspending an insect along a line between two metal spheres and comparing insect and sphere cross sections.
    3. keywords: {Delay effects;Dielectrics;Frequency;Insects;Magnetic anisotropy;Magnetic separation;Magnetostatic waves;Perpendicular magnetic anisotropy;Propagation delay;Radar cross section},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1450927&isnumber=31164
  10. B. G. Colpitts and G. Boiteau, "Harmonic radar transceiver design: miniature tags for insect tracking," in IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 52, no. 11, pp. 2825-2832, Nov. 2004.
    1. doi: 10.1109/TAP.2004.835166
    2. Abstract: The design and operation along with verifying measurements of a harmonic radar transceiver, or tag, developed for insect tracking are presented. A short length of wire formed the antenna while a beam lead Schottky diode across a resonant loop formed the frequency doubler circuit yielding a total tag mass of less than 3 mg. Simulators using the method-of-moments for the antenna, finite-integral time-domain for the loop, and harmonic balance for the nonlinear diode element were used to predict and optimize the transceiver performance. This performance is compared to the ideal case and to measurements performed using a pulsed magnetron source within an anechoic chamber. A method for analysis of the tag is presented and used to optimize the design by creating the largest possible return signal at the second harmonic frequency for a particular incident power density. These methods were verified through measurement of tags both in isolation and mounted on insects. For excitation at 9.41 GHz the optimum tag in isolation had an antenna length of 12 mm with a loop diameter of 1 mm which yielded a harmonic cross-section of 40 mm2. For tags mounted on Colorado potato beetles, optimum performance was achieved with an 8 mm dipole fed 2 mm from the beetle attached end. A theory is developed that describes harmonic radar in a fashion similar to the conventional radar range equation but with harmonic cross-section replacing the conventional radar cross-section. This method provides a straightforward description of harmonic radar system performance as well as provides a means to describe harmonic radar tag performance.
    3. keywords: {Schottky diodes;dipole antennas;frequency multipliers;method of moments;radar antennas;radar equipment;remote sensing by radar;time-domain analysis;transceivers;wire antennas;zoology;9.41 GHz;antenna measurements;beam lead Schottky diode;dipole antennas;finite-integral time-domain;frequency doubler circuit;harmonic balance;harmonic cross-section;harmonic radar transceiver design;insect tracking;method-of-moments;miniature tags;nonlinear diode element;resonant loop;wire antenna;Antenna measurements;Insects;Pulse measurements;Radar antennas;Radar cross section;Radar measurements;Radar theory;Radar tracking;Schottky diodes;Transceivers;65;Antenna measurements;Schottky diodes;dipole antennas;radar applications;radar theory;radio tracking;transceivers},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1353476&isnumber=29739
  11. R. Hajovsky, A. Deam and A. LaGrone, "Radar reflections from insects in the lower atmosphere," in IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 224-227, Mar 1966.
    1. doi: 10.1109/TAP.1966.1138665
    2. Abstract: The backscattering characteristics of various types of insects found in the lower atmosphere were measured and the results are reported in this paper. The magnitudes of the insect cross sections and the effects of incident electromagnetic energy polarization are presented along with physical characteristics of the insects. The measuring equipment is described and its capability discussed.
    3. keywords: {Insects;Radar scattering;Antenna measurements;Arm;Atmosphere;Atmospheric measurements;Backscatter;Insects;Laboratories;Radar antennas;Radar cross section;Reflection},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1138665&isnumber=25434
  12. B. Colpitts, D. Luke, G. Boiteau and M. Doyle, "Harmonic radar identification tag for insect tracking," Engineering Solutions for the Next Millennium. 1999 IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (Cat. No.99TH8411), Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 1999, pp. 602-605 vol.2.
    1. doi: 10.1109/CCECE.1999.807936
    2. Abstract: Design considerations and simulations are presented for an identification tag to be used in tracking insects through the use of harmonic radar. Radar is used instead of a radio transmitter in order to minimize the loading of the insect which for the Colorado potato beetle under study will require a tag of less than 5 mg mass. Frequency selection, antenna radiation pattern and impedance, as well as the SPICE model are discussed. The tag consists of a thin wire dipole antenna with a low-barrier Schottky diode and tuning inductor located at the feed point. The tag design procedure with limitations is presented.
    3. keywords: {antenna radiation patterns;biological techniques;electric impedance;identification technology;microwave antennas;radar antennas;radar tracking;wire antennas;zoology;Colorado potato beetle;SPICE model;antenna radiation pattern;frequency selection;harmonic radar identification tag;impedance;insect tracking;low-barrier Schottky diode;tag design procedure;thin wire dipole antenna;tuning inductor;Antenna radiation patterns;Dipole antennas;Frequency;Impedance;Insects;Radar antennas;Radar tracking;Radio transmitters;Radiofrequency identification;SPICE},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=807936&isnumber=17499
  13. J. R. Riley, "A millimetric radar to study the flight of small insects," in Electronics & Communication Engineering Journal, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 43-48, Feb. 1992.
    1. doi: 10.1049/ecej:19920011
    2. Abstract: Conventional 3 cm entomological radars have been successfully used for many years to observe the migratory flight of the larger insect species, but the range at which these radars can detect individual small insects is limited to a few hundred metres. The author outlines the design and application of an 8.8 mm wavelength radar to study the flight of insects weighing only 2 mg. Detection ranges in excess of 1 km were achieved for individual insects, and estimates of aerial density made by the radar were found to be within 50% of those made by an aerial sampling device.<>
    3. keywords: {remote sensing by radar;zoology;1 km;8.8 mm;aerial density;detection range;entomological radars;individual insects;migratory flight;millimetric radar;small insect detection;Radar imaging;Remote sensing},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=129334&isnumber=3613
  14. D. S. Zrnic and A. V. Ryzhkov, "Observations of insects and birds with a polarimetric radar," in IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 661-668, Mar 1998.
    1. doi: 10.1109/36.662746
    2. Abstract: The authors present observations of biological scatterers with a polarimetric weather radar. The radar has a pencil beam, a high power, and a wavelength of 10 cm. It transmits horizontally and vertically polarized waves alternately. The available polarimetric variables are differential reflectivity, differential phase, and correlation coefficient between orthogonally polarized returns. Two types of biological scatterers, insects and birds, are contrasted. Observed polarimetric signatures of these are compared and explained with a simple scattering model. Finally, the authors discuss the implications of recognizing the biological scatterers' type and the size of birds
    3. keywords: {atmospheric techniques;backscatter;biological techniques;meteorological radar;radar cross-sections;radar polarimetry;remote sensing by radar;zoology;10 cm;SHF;UHF;atmosphere;biological method;biological scatterer;bird;body size;correlation coefficient;differential phase;differential reflectivity;entomology;high power radar;horizontal polarisation;insect;measurement technique;meteorological radar;microwave radar;observations;ornithology;orthogonally polarized return;pencil beam;polarimetric radar;radar polarimetry;radar remote sensing;radar scattering;scattering model;species;type;vertical polarisation;weather radar;zoology;Birds;Doppler radar;Insects;Meteorological radar;Meteorology;Polarization;Radar polarimetry;Radar scattering;Radar tracking;Wind},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=662746&isnumber=14514
  15. B. G. Colpitts, D. M. Luke and G. Boiteau, "Harmonic radar for insect flight pattern tracking," 2000 Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering. Conference Proceedings. Navigating to a New Era (Cat. No.00TH8492), Halifax, NS, 2000, pp. 302-306 vol.1.
    1. doi: 10.1109/CCECE.2000.849718
    2. Abstract: A harmonic radar system is described for use in tracking the movement of flying insects in entomological studies. The objective is to predict the range performance of the system given realistic antenna dimensions, transmit power and receiver performance. A description of the receiver is presented including the noise and signal level calculations. A maximum range of 251 m is shown to be realizable under realistic assumptions
    3. keywords: {agriculture;noise;radar antennas;radar applications;radar receivers;radar tracking;radar transmitters;251 m;Colorado potato beetle;antenna dimensions;entomological studies;flying insects;harmonic radar system;insect flight pattern tracking;noise level;potato industry;range performance prediction;receiver performance;signal level;transmit power;Agriculture;Insects;Niobium;Radar antennas;Radar tracking;Radio transmitters;Receiving antennas;Signal to noise ratio;Transceivers;Transmitting antennas},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=849718&isnumber=18407
  16. U. Olgun, D. Psychoudakis, C. C. Chen and J. L. Volakis, "High gain lightweight array for harmonic portable RFID radar," 2009 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium, Charleston, SC, 2009, pp. 1-4.
    1. doi: 10.1109/APS.2009.5172066
    2. Abstract: Single fed, high gain and lightweight patch arrays of size 12"times9" are designed and proposed for integration with a harmonic portable RFID radar so as to track the behavioral patterns of invasive Emerald Ash Borer insect. Serial interconnections of the array elements are tapered in order to suppress sidelobe level. With these additions, the proposed harmonic insect tracking radar system offers new features like improved portability, cost effectiveness and ease of fabrication as well as inheriting the attributes like low power output and novel tiny tag from. A prototype of the system is built and is expected to detect a tag of size 9.5 mm times 9.5 mm (0.19lambda0 times 0.19lambda0) up to more than 190 feet when the unit transmits 0.1W with newly developed 22 dBi transmit and 21 dBi receive patch antennas operating at 5.9/11.8 GHz, respectively.
    3. keywords: {microstrip antenna arrays;radar tracking;radiofrequency identification;array elements;frequency 11.8 GHz;frequency 5.9 GHz;harmonic insect tracking radar system;harmonic portable RFID radar;high gain lightweight array;invasive Emerald Ash Borer insect;lightweight patch arrays;patch antennas;serial interconnections;sidelobe level suppression;size 9.5 mm;Ash;Costs;Fabrication;Insects;Optical arrays;Power system harmonics;Power system interconnection;Prototypes;Radar tracking;Radiofrequency identification},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5172066&isnumber=5171433
  17. H. Aniktar, D. Baran, E. Karav, E. Akkaya, Y. S. Birecik and M. Sezgin, "Getting the Bugs Out: A Portable Harmonic Radar System for Electronic Countersurveillance Applications," in IEEE Microwave Magazine, vol. 16, no. 10, pp. 40-52, Nov. 2015.
    1. doi: 10.1109/MMM.2015.2465591
    2. Abstract: The concept of a radar that detects semiconductor and metallic objects by monitoring second and third harmonic reradiations was conceived over 35 years ago. Called harmonic or nonlinear [1], [2], these radars can transmit at one or multiple frequencies and then receive the reflected signals at, or close to, the harmonic frequencies. Recently, harmonic radars have been used in different applications such as insect and bee tracking, vital-sign monitoring, antitheft systems [3], vehicular detection and identification, and countersurveillance [4]-[7]. Important design metrics for harmonic radars include operating frequencies, waveforms, polarizations, power levels, false-alarm rates, and detection sensitivity and range [5].
    3. keywords: {electronic countermeasures;object detection;radar detection;radar polarimetry;search radar;detects semiconductor;electronic counter surveillance application;false alarm rate;harmonic frequencies;metallic object detection;polarization;portable harmonic radar system;Harmonic analysis;Object detection;P-n junctions;Power harmonic filters;Radar detection;Radio frequency;Semiconductor device measurement;Surveillance},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=7298555&isnumber=7298500
  18. C. Neumann and H. Senkowski, "Plot based target classification for ATC radars," 2015 16th International Radar Symposium (IRS), Dresden, 2015, pp. 254-259.
    1. doi: 10.1109/IRS.2015.7226248
    2. Abstract: Air Traffic Control (ATC) radars are expected today to provide improved performance in terms of maximum range and spatial coverage, while the huge amount of small unwanted flying objects like birds and insects shall not lead to an increased false plot1 and / or false track2 rate. To accomplish these opposite aspects of radar capabilities, the occurring plots of the ATC primary surveillance radar (PSR) have to be assessed with respect to coming from wanted or unwanted objects. In addition to the various assessments usually implemented inside the ATC radar signal and data processing for this purpose, a new signature based plot classification is introduced to handle this challenging task. The plot classification recognises true air targets and discriminates them against echoes from birds, “angels”, wind turbines and other unwanted plots. The classification results are used to filter out false plots and to improve the plot to track association. Results from measurement campaigns show the benefit of this approach in real operational scenarios.
    3. keywords: {air traffic control;airborne radar;filtering theory;military radar;radar signal processing;search radar;signal classification;ATC primary surveillance radar;ATC radar data processing;ATC radar signal processing;air traffic control radars;false plot filtering;plot based target classification;plot-to-track association improvement;signature based plot classification;small unwanted flying objects;true air target recognition;Aircraft;Birds;Feature extraction;Radar antennas;Radar cross-sections;Radar tracking},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=7226248&isnumber=7226207
  19. N. Tahir and G. Brooker, "Toward the Development of Millimeter Wave Harmonic Sensors for Tracking Small Insects," in IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 5669-5676, Oct. 2015.
    1. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2015.2445933
    2. Abstract: Entomologists need to observe and monitor insects in their natural habitats for various reasons. One of the most common techniques in use today is to attach low-cost harmonic sensor or transponder to insects and to track them using an associated harmonic radar. Existing harmonic transponders based on monopoles, loop-dipoles, and Minkowski loops have been successfully attached to small low-flying insects. However, they offer significant constraints from a mounting perspective, weight and size considerations, aerodynamic drag, and the elevation of the insect center of gravity. This paper addresses these issues by presenting novel design methodologies for millimeter wave harmonic sensors and radar. The sensors address the challenges of ease of design and fabrication, robustness, conversion efficiency, miniaturization, antenna entangling, and attachment problems that are generally encountered with other transponders.
    3. keywords: {biological techniques;microstrip antennas;millimetre wave detectors;transponders;antenna entangling;conversion efficiency;microstrip antennas;millimeter wave harmonic sensors;miniaturization;small insect tracking;transponders;Antenna measurements;Harmonic analysis;Insects;Loss measurement;Optical sensors;Schottky diodes;Microstrip antennas;millimeter wave radar;radio frequency identification;remote monitoring;transponder;wearable sensor},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=7124457&isnumber=7181761
  20. S. Z. Gürbüz et al., "Exploring the skies: Technological challenges in radar aeroecology," 2015 IEEE Radar Conference (RadarCon), Arlington, VA, 2015, pp. 0817-0822.
    1. doi: 10.1109/RADAR.2015.7131108
    2. Abstract: Aeroecology is an emerging interdisciplinary science focused on the study of airborne organisms with the aim of deepening understanding about the ecological functions of the aerosphere and the bio-organisms that move through it. In addition to having important applications to the understanding of animal migration and foraging movements, global pest and disease control, biodiversity and conservation issues, and monitoring of the effects of climate change, aeroecology has also been critical in ensuring the safety of military and civilian aircraft from bird strikes. Although the capability of radar to observe bioscatter has been known for nearly 70 years, radar aeroecology has now entered an exciting new phase, with the prospect of continent-wide monitoring of flying animals by means of networks of operational weather radars. In this work, the technological challenges of using radar for the detection, characterization, and monitoring of birds, bats, and insects is discussed in detail. Current efforts to further develop radar signal processing algorithms for aeroecology is discussed in light of a multi-national European research initiative, ENRAM.
    3. keywords: {airborne radar;ecology;meteorological radar;radar detection;radar signal processing;ENRAM;aerosphere;airborne organism;animal migration;biodiversity;bioorganism;bioscattering;civilian aircraft;climate change;continent-wide monitoring;disease control;ecological function;foraging movement;global pest;military aircraft;multinational European research initiative;radar aeroecology;radar detection;radar signal processing algorithm;safety;weather radar;Birds;Doppler radar;Europe;Insects;Meteorological radar;Meteorology},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=7131108&isnumber=7130933
  21. D. Lange, F. Rocadenbosch, J. Tiana-Alsina and S. Frasier, "Atmospheric Boundary Layer Height Estimation Using a Kalman Filter and a Frequency‐Modulated Continuous‐Wave Radar," in IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 3338-3349, June 2015.
    1. doi: 10.1109/TGRS.2014.2374233
    2. Abstract: An adaptive solution based on an extended Kalman filter (EKF) is proposed to estimate the atmospheric boundarylayer height (ABLH) from frequency-modulated continuous-wave S-band weather-radar returns. The EKF estimator departs from previous works, in which the transition interface between the mixing layer (ML) and the free troposphere (FT) is modeled by means of an erf-like parametric function. In contrast to lidar remote sensing, where aerosols give strong backscatter returns over the whole ML, clear-air radar reflectivity returns (Bragg scattering from refractive turbulence) shows strongest returns from the ML-FT interface. In addition, they are corrupted by “insect” noise (impulsive noise associated with Rayleigh scattering from insects and birds), all of which requires a specific treatment of the problem and the measurement noise for the clear-air radar case. The proposed radar-ABLH estimation method uses: 1) a first preprocessing of the reflectivity returns based on median filtering and threshold-limited decision to obtain “clean” reflectivity signal; 2) a modified EKF with adaptive range intervals as time tracking estimator; and 3) ad hoc modeling of the observation noise covariance. The method has successfully been implemented in clear-air, single-layer, and convective boundary-layer conditions. ABLH estimates from the proposed radar-EKF method have been cross examined with those from a collocated lidar ceilometer yielding a correlation coefficient as high as ρ = 0.93 (mean signal-to-noise ratio, SNR = 18 (linear units), at the ABLH) and in relation to the classic THM.
    3. keywords: {atmospheric boundary layer;atmospheric optics;atmospheric techniques;atmospheric turbulence;remote sensing by laser beam;remote sensing by radar;troposphere;Bragg scattering;EKF estimator;ML-FT interface;adaptive solution;atmospheric boundary layer height estimation;clear-air radar case;clear-air radar reflectivity returns;collocated lidar ceilometer;convective boundary-layer conditions;correlation coefficient;erf-like parametric function;extended Kalman filter;free troposphere;frequency-modulated continuous-wave S-band weather-radar returns;lidar remote sensing;radar-ABLH estimation method;refractive turbulence;Adaptation models;Estimation;Insects;Laser radar;Noise;Scattering;Adaptive kalman filtering;laser radar;remote sensing;signal processing},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6998066&isnumber=7032018
  22. P. H. Jau et al., "Signal processing for harmonic pulse radar based on spread spectrum technology," in IET Radar, Sonar & Navigation, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 242-250, March 2014.
    1. doi: 10.1049/iet-rsn.2013.0024
    2. Abstract: This study presents the signal processing techniques applied on a 9.4/18.8 GHz harmonic radar, which is used to investigate behaviours of small insects such as bees, beetles and butterflies. It is still a challenge to achieve high accuracy and long detection range simultaneously in a harmonic pulse radar system. The authors combine the spread spectrum technology with the classic pulse harmonic radar system to overcome the dilemma between accuracy and detection range. The processing gain of the pseudo-random code from the spread spectrum technology is used to increase the sensitivity and makes the system able to detect the signal with the weak power strength below the system noise level. To eliminate the effect caused by the local leakage, the signal-processing method provided to cancel the leakage through applying the symmetric property of the autocorrelation function of the pseudo-random code. In the field tests, the proposed system achieves a 60 m detection range within 1 m ranging accuracy by using 1.75 W transmitting power corresponding to 40.430 dBW equivalent-isotropically radiated power (EIRP). It is estimated to extend to at least 900 m detection range by using a 3 kW transmitting power corresponding to 72.771 dBW EIRP.
    3. keywords: {radar signal processing;radiofrequency power transmission;random sequences;signal detection;spread spectrum radar;EIRP;autocorrelation function;equivalent-isotropically radiated power;frequency 18.8 GHz;frequency 9.4 GHz;gain processing;harmonic radar;power 1.75 W;power 3 kW;power transmission;pseudorandom code;signal detection;signal processing;spread spectrum technology-based harmonic pulse radar;system noise level;weak power strength},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6750818&isnumber=6750808
  23. H. Aumann, E. Kus, B. Cline and N. W. Emanetoglu, "An asymmetrical dipole tag with optimum harmonic conversion efficiency," Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation, Chicago, IL, 2012, pp. 1-2.
    1. doi: 10.1109/APS.2012.6348447
    2. Abstract: Extremely small passive dipole tags have been used for tracking insects with a harmonic radar. It will be shown that by adjusting the dipole feed point location, the conversion efficiency, and hence the maximum detection range, can be optimized. Analysis, simulations and measurements on X-band tags confirm that the best tag efficiency is achieved with a half-wavelength dipole and asymmetric 1:2 dipole arm lengths.
    3. keywords: {Schottky diodes;dipole antennas;inductors;radar antennas;Schottky diode junction capacitance;X-band tags;asymmetric 1:2 dipole arm lengths;asymmetrical dipole tag;chip inductor;dipole feed point location;half-wavelength dipole;harmonic radar;maximum detection range;optimum harmonic conversion efficiency;tracking insects;Artificial intelligence;Barium;Iron},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6348447&isnumber=6347935
  24. N. Tahir and G. Brooker, "Recent developments and recommendations for improving harmonic radar tracking systems," Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EUCAP), Rome, 2011, pp. 1531-1535.
    1. Abstract: The paper presents some recent developments in harmonic radar tracking systems. These are widely used for monitoring and tracking of low flying insects like honey bees, butterflies, snail and carabid beetles, and come under the category of individual marking techniques and use harmonic range detection or range finding for tracking insects tagged with harmonic transponders. In most cases the transponder is, however, a vertical rod or trailing wire both of which hinder insect movement. This paper presents recommendations for improving the harmonic radar, detectable range and minimizing the weight and size of transponder. It presents externally biased microstrip antenna based prototype harmonic transponder.
    2. keywords: {distance measurement;radar tracking;transponders;externally biased microstrip antenna;harmonic radar tracking systems;harmonic range detection;harmonic transponders;insect movement;prototype harmonic transponder;range finding;Harmonic analysis;Insects;Microstrip antennas;Radar tracking;Schottky diodes;Transponders;Microstrip antennas;Radiofrequency identification;millimeter wave radar;transponder},
    3. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5781806&isnumber=5780481
  25. N. Behdad, M. Al-Joumayly and M. Li, "Biomimetic electrically small antennas," in Electronics Letters, vol. 46, no. 25, pp. 1650-1651, December 9 2010.
    1. doi: 10.1049/el.2010.8034
    2. Abstract: Many insects possess acute directional hearing capabilities and are able to localise a sound source of interest with a good degree of precision. An analogy can be drawn between the hearing mechanisms of such insects and a two-element, electrically small antenna array. Presented is a biomimetic electrically small antenna array that mimics the hearing mechanism of an insect with hyperacute directional hearing capability. A prototype of such an antenna has been fabricated and its simulated and measured results are presented. Such biomimetic antenna arrays could be used in numerous applications ranging from miniaturised RF sensors and direction finding systems to small aperture, high-resolution microwave imaging systems and radars.
    3. keywords: {antenna arrays;biocommunications;biomimetics;hearing;biomimetic electrically small antenna array;direction finding systems;hearing mechanism;highresolution microwave imaging systems;hyperacute directional hearing capability;microwave radars;miniaturised RF sensors;sound source},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5665812&isnumber=5665802
  26. V. Lakshmanan and J. Zhang, "Censoring Biological Echoes in Weather Radar Images," 2009 Sixth International Conference on Fuzzy Systems and Knowledge Discovery, Tianjin, 2009, pp. 491-495.
    1. doi: 10.1109/FSKD.2009.640
    2. Abstract: Weather radar data is susceptible to several artifacts due to anamalous propagation, ground clutter, electronic interference, sun angle, second-trip echoes and biological contaminants such as insects, bats and birds. Several methods of censoring radar reflectivity data have been devised and described in the literature. However, they all rely on analyzing the local texture and vertical profile of reflectivity fields. The local texture of reflectivity fields suffices to remove most artifacts, except for biological echoes. Biological echoes have proved difficult to remove because they can have the same returned power and vertical profile as stratiform rain or snow. In this paper, we describe a soft-computing technique based on clustering, segmentation and a two-stage neural network to censor all non-precipitating artifacts in weather radar reflectivity data. We demonstrate that the technique is capable of discrimination between light snow, stratiform rain and deep biological ¿bloom¿.
    3. keywords: {environmental science computing;radar imaging;weather forecasting;anamalous propagation;biological contaminants;biological echoes censoring;electronic interference;ground clutter;second-trip echoes;sun angle;weather radar images;Birds;Clutter;Echo interference;Insects;Meteorological radar;Radar imaging;Rain;Reflectivity;Snow;Sun;clustering;neural network;segmentation;weather radar},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5360572&isnumber=5360535
  27. G. L. Charvat, E. J. Rothwell and L. C. Kempel, "Harmonic radar tag measurement and characterization," IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium. Digest. Held in conjunction with: USNC/CNC/URSI North American Radio Sci. Meeting (Cat. No.03CH37450), Columbus, OH, USA, 2003, pp. 696-699 vol.2.
    1. doi: 10.1109/APS.2003.1219331
    2. Abstract: Conventional radar systems transmit and receive at a single, fundamental frequency. It is sometimes challenging to identify a small object against a large background with these radars due to the relatively large return from the background. In effect, the background represents a clutter environment. Harmonic radar tags can be attached to an item, such as insects, and then used to track that item against the background. To do so, the radar must transmit a signal at the fundamental frequency but receive at twice that frequency. Since the clutter return is at the fundamental frequency, the radar is able to discriminate the return from the tag. This paper describes equipment constructed at Michigan State University to conduct research on harmonic tags.
    3. keywords: {UHF antennas;dipole antennas;frequency multipliers;radar clutter;radar tracking;target tracking;917 MHz;antenna connected frequency doubler;background return;clutter environment;dipole harmonic radar tag;insect tagging;radar fundamental frequency;radar single transmit/receive frequency;target tracking;Dynamic range;Frequency measurement;Power harmonic filters;Radar antennas;Radar clutter;Radar measurements;Radar tracking;Schottky diodes;Target tracking;Technical Activities Guide -TAG},
    4. URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1219331&isnumber=27400

 
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